Adult Learning Theory

Introduction

Adult learning theory, often referred to as andragogy, is one of the most widely cited yet inconsistently applied frameworks in corporate learning and development. Originating in the mid-20th century, it does not describe how learning works at the cognitive level. Instead, it offers a set of guiding principles for designing instruction that aligns with adult learners’ needs, motivations, and self-concept.

The theory is most closely associated with Malcolm Knowles, who articulated six core assumptions about how adults tend to approach learning. These principles have been broadly adopted across corporate training, higher education, and workforce development—though often in a superficial or inconsistent way. Despite its popularity, adult learning theory is often misunderstood as a universal model of instruction. In reality, it is better understood as a set of design heuristics: flexible, experience-informed guidance for making learning more effective and respectful for adult participants.

What Is Adult Learning Theory?

Adult learning theory is not a mechanistic model of learning like behaviorism or information processing theory. It does not prescribe specific strategies for memory, attention, or transfer. Instead, it outlines six assumptions about how adults differ from children in their approach to learning:

• Need to know – Adults are more likely to engage with content when they understand its purpose or relevance.

• Self-concept – Adults view themselves as self-directed and responsible; they prefer to have some control over their learning.

• Prior experience – Adults bring accumulated life and work experience to learning situations, which can serve as a valuable resource or a source of bias.

• Readiness to learn – Adults are most ready to learn things that are timely and relevant to their current responsibilities or roles.

• Orientation to learning – Adults tend to be problem-centered and outcome-driven; they want learning to solve real-world challenges.

• Motivation – While external rewards exist, adults are often motivated more by internal drivers such as professional growth, competence, and personal goals.

These assumptions are not meant to be universally true for all adults in all contexts. Instead, they describe patterns that should influence how instruction is designed, delivered, and evaluated in adult learning settings.

How Does It Work in Practice?

Adult learning theory does not function as a step-by-step design model. Rather, it operates as a lens through which instructional decisions can be evaluated and refined. The theory emphasizes that effective adult learning environments tend to:

• Clearly communicate the purpose of the learning upfront

• Involve learners in decisions about content, pace, or delivery

• Integrate and acknowledge prior experience as part of the learning process

• Frame content around practical problems, not abstract subject matter

• Create opportunities for immediate relevance and real-world application

• Respect the learner’s autonomy and expertise

In practice, this might mean offering optional modules for self-paced learning, using realistic scenarios or case studies, or beginning a session by asking participants to share relevant experiences. It does not mean removing structure altogether or assuming that all adult learners want total control. Instead, it means adjusting the instructional approach to better match adult dispositions and workplace realities.

When Is Adult Learning Theory Most Useful?

Adult learning theory is most useful in workplace, community, or professional learning environments where:

• Learners are balancing training with other responsibilities

• Relevance and efficiency are more valued than formal accreditation

• Learners bring diverse prior experience to the learning context

• The instructional goal involves application, problem-solving, or behavioral change

• Engagement and buy-in are necessary for transfer

For example, in leadership development programs, adult learning principles help shift the focus from abstract models to case-based reflection, peer discussion, and applied exercises. Similarly, when onboarding experienced professionals, drawing on what they already know—and avoiding condescension—can make the training more credible and effective.

By contrast, adult learning theory offers less value in environments where the content must be followed in strict sequence or mastered for compliance reasons. In these cases, its principles can still inform tone and delivery, but the structure may need to remain instructor-led and directive.

Theoretical Foundations

Adult learning theory is grounded in humanistic psychology, particularly the work of Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, both of whom emphasized personal growth, self-direction, and respect for the learner. It also draws from the adult education movement of the mid-20th century, which sought to distinguish adult education from traditional, child-oriented instruction.

Malcolm Knowles did not reject other models of learning. In fact, he positioned andragogy as a complement to pedagogy rather than a replacement. He recognized that some adult learning situations still required structured, instructor-led approaches, while others benefited from more collaborative or self-directed strategies.

Importantly, adult learning theory does not make claims about learning mechanisms. It is agnostic on whether learning occurs through behaviorist conditioning, cognitive processing, or social interaction. Its focus is environmental and relational—on the context in which adult learning is most likely to succeed.

Design Considerations for Using Adult Learning Theory

Designers applying adult learning theory should consider several implications for instructional planning:

• Explain relevance upfront – Adults want to know why a learning activity matters. Start with the “why” before the “how.”

• Allow some learner control – This can include flexible pacing, optional paths, or participation in goal setting.

• Draw on prior knowledge – Use reflection, discussion, or peer sharing to help learners connect new ideas to what they already know.

• Frame learning around problems – Focus content on challenges the learner is likely to face, not abstract theory alone.

• Enable immediate application – Provide job aids, scenarios, or on-the-job practice opportunities that reinforce new skills.

• Avoid over-instruction – Be mindful of tone, authority, and unnecessary control. Adults do not need to be managed; they need to be respected.

These considerations do not rule out structure, guidance, or performance expectations. They simply emphasize that adults engage more fully when treated as partners in the learning process.

Critiques and Limitations

While adult learning theory has enduring value, it is not without limitations:

• It is not a theory of learning mechanisms – It does not explain how information is processed, stored, or transferred. For that, cognitive or behavioral models are required.

• It can be misapplied – Overzealous interpretation can lead to vague, overly permissive learning environments with too little guidance or structure.

• Not all adults want self-direction – Preferences vary widely. Some adult learners prefer clear direction, milestones, and feedback.

• It assumes readiness and motivation – Many adults participate in training not by choice but by mandate. Designing only for ideal learners risks alienating real ones.

• It reflects Western, individualistic values – The emphasis on autonomy, choice, and self-direction may not resonate in collectivist cultures or hierarchical organizations.

The core issue is that adult learning theory is often interpreted more broadly than it was intended. It is a set of design principles—not a universal solution—and must be integrated thoughtfully into instructional practice.

Notable Contributors

• Malcolm Knowles – Introduced the term andragogy and articulated its six core assumptions.

• Stephen Brookfield – Extended and critiqued Knowles’s work, focusing on critical thinking and reflection.

• Jack Mezirow – Developed transformative learning theory, which builds on adult learning theory by exploring how adults change their frames of reference.

• Jane Vella – Emphasized dialogue-based learning and applied adult learning principles in global education contexts.

Conclusion

Adult learning theory is not a theory of cognition or performance. It is a theory of design—a way to improve the relevance, tone, and structure of learning experiences for adults. For instructional designers working in corporate or professional settings, it offers a practical framework for creating training that respects the learner’s time, experience, and autonomy.

When applied thoughtfully, it enhances engagement, improves transfer, and helps avoid the common pitfalls of instructional paternalism. But it should not be treated as a replacement for instructional strategy, nor as a justification for abandoning structure. It complements more mechanistic models by addressing what many of them overlook: the lived experience and self-concept of the learner.

At its best, adult learning theory is a reminder that training is not just about delivering content—it is about creating conditions for learning that feel relevant, respectful, and real.