Transtheoretical Model of Change
The Transtheoretical Model of Change (TTM), developed by James Prochaska and Carlo DiClemente in the late 1970s, is a psychological framework that describes how individuals change behavior over time. Originally developed in the context of health-related behaviors—particularly smoking cessation—the model has since been applied in many domains where sustained behavioral change is a challenge.
Unlike models that assume behavior change occurs as a single event, the Transtheoretical Model presents change as a process that unfolds in stages. Individuals move through these stages at their own pace, and may move forward or backward depending on a range of personal and environmental factors. The model is intended to reflect the lived, cyclical nature of change, rather than a purely rational or linear process.
Core Assumptions of the Model
The Transtheoretical Model is based on several key assumptions:
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Behavior change is a process, not an event
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Different stages of change require different types of support
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Relapse and recycling are common parts of the process
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Individuals vary in their readiness to change, and interventions are more effective when matched to that readiness
These assumptions underpin the structure of the model, which organizes behavior change into six stages.
Types of Change
The model identifies ten types of change—cognitive and behavioral activities that help people progress from one stage to another. These include:
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Consciousness-raising (increasing awareness)
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Self-reevaluation (reconsidering self-image with or without the behavior)
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Counterconditioning (substituting healthy behaviors for problem behaviors)
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Reinforcement management (using rewards and consequences to sustain behavior)
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Helping relationships (seeking and using social support)
Different processes are more relevant at different stages, underscoring the model’s emphasis on matching interventions to readiness.
The Six Stages of Change
The model identifies six stages that individuals typically pass through when attempting to change a behavior. Movement is not always forward; people often cycle through the stages multiple times before achieving lasting change.
1. Precontemplation
In this stage, the individual has no intention of changing behavior in the foreseeable future—typically within the next six months. They may be unaware of the problem, in denial about its significance, or simply unmotivated to change.
Common characteristics include:
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Defensiveness or resistance to discussion
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Minimization of risks or negative consequences
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Externalization of responsibility
Interventions at this stage are unlikely to succeed through instruction or persuasion alone. Raising awareness and prompting reflection are often more appropriate.
2. Contemplation
In the contemplation stage, the individual is beginning to recognize that a problem exists and is considering change—but has not yet committed to action. They may feel ambivalent, weighing the pros and cons.
Key features include:
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Acknowledgment of the issue
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Uncertainty or indecision about whether change is worth the effort
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Readiness to gather more information
People in this stage benefit from opportunities to explore consequences, clarify values, and examine barriers to change.
3. Preparation
Here, the person has made the decision to change and is actively planning for it. This stage typically occurs within a month of the intended change and involves organizing the tools, resources, or support necessary for action.
Preparation often involves:
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Setting goals or timelines
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Researching methods or solutions
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Making small initial adjustments
Support during this phase is most effective when it reinforces commitment and builds confidence.
4. Action
In this stage, the individual is actively modifying their behavior, environment, or routines to implement the change. This is typically observable and measurable.
Key features include:
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Public or visible changes in behavior
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High effort and energy expenditure
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Risk of setback due to unfamiliarity or environmental resistance
People in this stage need support systems, feedback, and strategies to overcome challenges. Reinforcement and encouragement are critical.
5. Maintenance
The maintenance stage involves sustaining the new behavior and preventing relapse. The individual is more confident and has developed routines or coping mechanisms that support the new behavior.
Important characteristics include:
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Reinforcement of gains
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Continued monitoring for triggers or backsliding
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Efforts to integrate the behavior into identity
Relapse is still possible in this stage, particularly in response to stress, disruption, or loss of motivation.
6. Termination
In the original formulation of the model, termination refers to the point at which the new behavior has become fully integrated, and there is no longer a risk of relapse. For many behaviors, this stage may not be realistic, and long-term maintenance remains the practical endpoint.
Not all versions of the model include termination, especially in contexts where behavior must be managed indefinitely (e.g., substance abstinence, health regimens).
Decisional Balance and Self-Efficacy
Two additional constructs are central to the Transtheoretical Model:
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Decisional balance refers to the weighing of perceived pros and cons. In early stages, cons usually outweigh pros. As people progress, the balance shifts.
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Self-efficacy reflects the individual’s confidence in their ability to change. It typically increases as people move through preparation and action.
Both constructs help explain why people stall or regress. High decisional conflict or low self-efficacy can prevent progress even when intentions are strong.
Critiques and Limitations
Despite its widespread use, the Transtheoretical Model has faced several criticisms:
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Stage rigidity: Critics argue that behavior change may not follow discrete stages, and that the model may oversimplify the complexity of human decision-making.
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Measurement challenges: Determining which stage someone is in can be difficult and subjective.
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Cultural limitations: The model was developed in a Western context and may not account for communal or culturally mediated conceptions of change.
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Behavior specificity: While originally developed for smoking cessation, the model has been broadly applied—sometimes inappropriately—to very different types of change without validation.
Still, many practitioners find the model useful for framing behavior change as a dynamic process rather than a binary event.
Implications for Corporate Learning and Development
Although designed for health behaviors, the Transtheoretical Model offers valuable insights for corporate L&D professionals working in areas like skill adoption, mindset change, and workplace behavior.
Not all employees are ready to change at the same time
Whether the goal is adopting a new system, applying new leadership behaviors, or shifting culture, employees vary in their readiness. Some may be unaware of the need, while others are already planning. Designing training as a one-size-fits-all solution misses this variability.
Tailor interventions to readiness
People in precontemplation don’t benefit from the same interventions as those in action. L&D programs can be more effective when they include diagnostic components that identify readiness—and align support accordingly. For example, awareness campaigns, coaching, peer storytelling, and skill-building may each serve different segments.
Recognize that resistance doesn’t mean defiance
Employees who seem resistant may simply be in an earlier stage of change. The model encourages empathy and patience, rather than coercion. Small nudges, reflection opportunities, or exposure to early adopters may be more effective than formal instruction.
Provide support beyond the training event
Action is only one stage in the model. Long-term application requires maintenance—support, reinforcement, follow-up, and opportunities for reflection. Without these, initial enthusiasm often fades.
Anticipate and normalize relapse
Behavioral backsliding is normal, not a failure. Programs that acknowledge this reality—and provide re-engagement strategies—can sustain momentum without creating shame or fatigue.
Conclusion
The Transtheoretical Model of Change presents a structured, stage-based view of how individuals move toward new behaviors. By identifying specific stages and the processes that support them, the model offers a nuanced way to understand motivation, resistance, and behavioral development over time.
For corporate learning professionals, the model serves as a reminder that change is uneven, nonlinear, and deeply personal. Programs designed with an awareness of readiness—rather than assuming uniformity—can better meet people where they are and help them move toward meaningful, lasting change.